Jilting in William Faulkners A Rose for Emily and...

Jilting in William Faulkners A Rose for Emily and Katherine Anne Porters The Jilting of Granny Weatherall Webster’s dictionary defines the word â€Å"jilt† as the act of rejecting a lover. So to be deserted by another, left at the altar, or unwanted by another, is to be jilted. In William Faulkner’s â€Å"A Rose for Emily† and in â€Å"The Jilting of Granny Weatherall† by Katherine Anne Porter, Emily and Granny Weatherall throughout the course of their lives experience jilting several times. In turn, this rejection places a significant emphasis on both of their lives. After Emily’s father passes away in â€Å"A Rose for Emily,† Emily’s sweetheart rejects her. The only man that her father must have approved of ran out on her, leaving†¦show more content†¦With this discovery, Emily knew she could never have him and could not bear the thought of another man that she loved leaving her. This must have been the breaking point for her. Emily was determined not to let another man leave her for the third time. Therefore she purchased the arsenic so she could be with him forever. The last person to see Homer was a neighbor as the Negro man was admitting him in at the kitchen door at dusk one evening. Again, Emily submerged herself into the familiar calm of isolation until her death. After her funeral, the narrator (the town) paints the picture of their discovery in the room above the stairs. A room in which no one had seen in for forty years. â€Å"The man himself lay in the bed. For a long while we just stood there, loo king down at the profound and fleshless grin. The body had once lain in the attitude of an embrace, but now the long sleep that outlasts love, that conquers even the grimace of love, had cuckolded him. What was left of him†¦. Then we noticed that in the second pillow was the indentation of a head. One of us lifted

Risk Management An Investment Decision Making Process

Risk management refers to the process involved in identifying, analyzing and acceptance or preventing of uncertainty in an investment decision making process (Dorfman, 2007). In most cases, risk management is carried out to control losses that may occur as a result of an event that may occur in a business. It is good to note that failure by a business to take adequate risk management can result to severe loss or consequences, not only for the business, but also for individuals. In simple terms, this is a two step process that involves determining the risks that may arise and the dealing with the risks in a way that is most effective for your business investment goals (Hubbard, 2009). This article provides an example of how failure to put the right risk management strategies can lead to massive loss in a business. The article uses Spear Investment Company located in New York as a perfect example of a business that failed to apply risk management properly. 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IT Management Issues for Developing Economy- myassignmenthelp

Question: Discuss about theIT Management Issues for Developing Economy. Answer: Introduction The current business environment is that of globalization and developing economy, and thus many businesses are trying to attain the maximum market attainable in both levels of market, that is, global and local markets. Everyday business people struggle to attain their ideal objective. For this reason, businesses have been working extra hard to tout-do their competitors in several different ways one of the commonly known way is merger and acquisition (MA). The main objective of expanding and growing a business is to gain financial stability and profit maximization for stakeholders. (Gleich, Kierans, Hasselbach 2010). The assumptions made include the following: Monet has already merged, it has implemented the ERP and the intelligent portal. Also the loyalty scheme is being practiced. Mergers and acquisitions (MA) offers firms and companies possibility of a wider and bigger share in the market and diversification. Monet (group of 5 holiday resorts) are utilizing this technique for the purpose of growing the 5 resorts. The objective of the managements decision was expanding their market, increasing the number of clients so as to get more, achieving financial stability and become more competitive. With the current conditions of economy MA have achieved quality across the global market. Also technological advancement, competition and globalization has facilitated growth of MA. (Dringoli, 2016). Concept of Mergers and Acquisition Merger involves mutual agreement between two or more businesses to combine and become single business. The idea of MA has brought about increased profits and reduced operational costs through operational and structural benefits brought by merger. The benefits that come around by merging are vast and include the following: the business is able gain power, control and dominance in the market environment, efficiency value is increased like cost savings and enrichments, resource sharing bring about economies of scale offering competitive advantage due to reduced costs, the risk of utilizing innovative methods of financial risk management is greatly reduced and the best benefit is tax advantage. (Sherman, 2011). However, success of a merger depends on the efforts and strategies of the merging businesses. If this is not done well by the Monet management, it will lead to some disadvantages including: experienced workers will be lost, small merging business workers need exhausting training, the merger may experience difficulties due to competition among the employees of the combined resorts, there is over capacity of business that may require retrenchment and duplication. (Hassan, Ghauri, 2014). Information Technology and Information System Issues Information technology has led to development of new communication channels thus facilitating customer connection. In this generation nearly everybody is connected via the internet and people can easily connect and chat and share experiences. This has led to expectations of customers changing like they expect quicker, better and quality services. Clients now know that they possess power to choose what they want, where and when to have or go. Therefore, Monet implementing ERP systems and intelligent electronic portal is a way to satisfy these customer demand. (Chew Gottschalk, 2009). An information system (IS) is integrated components for gathering, processing, displaying storing information in form of knowledge. Monet utilizes such systems to run and control their day-to-day processes and interact with customers to attain market power. Also the company can use information systems such as ERP and web 4.0 portals to monitor and control operations and extend services to customers. (Cohen, 2012). ERP Benefits to the Monet and its Customers According to Worster, Weirich Andera (2012), ERP implementation brings several benefits to the company including: Competition- ERP software needs a big investment. But a greater cost lies in not making the investment. Businesses cannot risk failing to implement ERP while their competitors gain the benefits of employing the system. Seeking technology solutions will ease ways of lead generation. Efficiency- An ERP solution get rid of duplicate processes and reduces greatly the urge to manually key in information. The system will also smoothen, and simplify business processes and improve efficiency for organizations to collect information, regardless of what department they are operating in. Forecasting- correct forecasts are created through implementation of Enterprise resource planning software because it offers users and managers the tool they require. Business are able to make estimates that are more realistic and more effective prediction Collaboration- department collaboration is important and a necessity in a business structure. Departments are able to operate together if the data keyed into ERP systems is consistent and centralized. The software also deals with most aspect of a business, thus automatically motivating collaborative, interdepartmental energy. Scalability- designed ERP systems permits the addition of new clients and operates to improve the solution implemented initially with time. When the business is ready to move to the next step or requires more resources, ERP software should have the ability to facilitate that growth. Reporting- ERP software ease reporting and makes it more customizable. With enhanced capabilities of reporting, the organization can respond easily to complex information requests. Consumers can also execute their reports without depending on the assistance from IT, thus saving time of the users. Some of the customer benefits associated with the implementation of ERP include; service delivery is fast- when inventory information is correct and is accessible easily, orders are sold faster. An ERP system enables updates of real-time to maintain correct inventory information. In circumstances where customers are used to booking resorts, or tours at the click of a button, faster booking order fulfillment is vital.(Kimbrell, Ellis East Carolina University, 2013). Accurate services- correct fulfilling services needs cross-functional collaboration between reservation, billing, tour guide among others. ERP data is distributed among several departments thus bettering insights, and keeping everyone aware about service status. When services are met correctly and on time, client satisfaction is enhanced and expenses that come with errors are reduced. (Chetty, 2016). Improved Customer Service- When client service representative have permission to access detailed customer data all in one portal, customer requirements can be met faster. An ERP system can be structured in a way that the user is able to view the most relevant data on his or her custom-built dashboards for example client related information versus daily information of the entire system. Thus simplifying the access of required information. (Information Resources Management Association, 2011) Lower Costs- ERP software minimizes operation and administrative costs by reducing errors, repetitive duties, and excess inventory. Monitoring operations also aids in prevention of downtime and disruptions, and enhance betterment of employee management and program. Best clients are prioritized and rewarded with free tours among other offers. When organization processes are made better, both the company and clients reap the benefits. Impacts of Web 4.0 Level Ultra-Intelligent Electronic Portal Creation of such a portal will enhance interaction of Monet customers with their website. When customers visit this site, s/he will be recognized if one stands in front of the recognition devices like scanners and cameras the system will identify the customer and say word like: Welcome to Monet, services at its best. How may I help you today Customer Name? such a system makes a customer feel recognized and have a feeling of belonging. Many people want a system that interacts with them with less typing and this system will be unique to Monet business. (Ozkan, 2010). However, implementing such a system to a newly merged enterprise is a big risk to a business. This technology is sophisticated and may be complex to customers when interacting with it. Clients tend to prefer easy to use portals and therefore since web 4.0 will be a new technology, it may not be well received by customers. (Murugesan, 2010). There are a lot of opportunities that can come up with merging the 5 resorts into one. The company may decide to diversify its services not only to be the normal resort services but they can venture into opportunities like transportation-airport pick up and drop for non-clients, entertainment- rather than the television sets installed in the resort rooms, the company may decide to venture in to cinema business where clients can be going there to watch movies. Such opportunities will expand the business territory and enhanced market power. (Nelson, Joos Wolf, 2013). Acquiring New Customers Achieving loyalty requires giving back something to your clients through rewards like free meals, airport transfers, and free tours. Hotel businesses should acknowledge that loyal clients are more profitable but can also shift to other competitive resorts. The loyal customers of an organization should sometimes be offered goods or services at a lower price. This will increase their loyalty thus increasing the profit of the business. It is essential to give reason to your clients on why they should stay and utilize your services. (Zeidler, 2009). The easiest and most efficient way of attaining this is by creating a client loyalty program. Investing energy and time in improving client loyalty should be a part of any business' marketing techniques. If you fail to invest in client loyalty, the likelihood of losing more client than attracting them is higher. (Bainbridge, 2017). An effective client loyalty scheme should utilize customer information and control each clients interactions with your business. This should include what they buy, why, and when. This knowledge permits you to provide useful and targeted rewards, like vouchers and rewards on what they buy. Offers like this are useful to the as they will make the customer come back frequently. This will lead to more sales for the business as the client redeems their rewards and use more money with your business.(Humby, Hunt Phillips, 2008). Targeted and tailored offers may also have a higher perceived worth than generic unique rewards. Bespoke rewards make the client feel valued and improves the relationship with you. This is an evidence to the customers that you understand their requirements, and thus helps in attaining customer. In addition, it gives the feeling that you are investing time to focus on them which helps enhance a positive emotional reaction. (Zeidler, 2009). This positive reaction can be employed and nurtured with the use of communications carefully. Frequent communication through the email or newsletter, will assist in relationship building and make your clients feel valued, while making sure they are updated on major pertinent rewards. Frequent clients engagement is also a method of achieving client loyalty. (Humby, Hunt Phillips, 2008). Benefits of Implementing Customer Loyalty Scheme The following are some of the advantages of having a customer loyalty scheme: Costs is reduced The evidence is in the numbers: generating new businesses from an existing client is five times cheaper compared to acquiring new clients. As such building customer loyalty scheme will reduce the cost of having a new customer. (Agnihotri, Rapp Business Expert Press, 2010). Recommendations the most efficient brand ambassadors are your satisfied customers. They are likely to recommend fresh business, which can ease sales and provide cheaper ways of lead generation. A survey conducted on customer loyalty revealed that approximately 20 percent of new sales achieved come from the existing clients. Repeat business Loyal clients invest more in your business. This is because they will repeatedly buy your services or goods over a long period of time. In accordance to the sales and business cycles, one loyal customer can bring more profit annually than maybe ten first-time clients. Bigger sales building relationships with loyal clients, leads to easiness on sales of higher volume of goods and. Thus, achieving client loyalty should yield larger profits and more sales. Clients that trust your business also listen and heed to your recommendations. This offers a chance to sell along your product lines. Staying ahead loyal customers place you ahead of your competitors. Organization that have built strong brand loyalty are immune to forces of competition which is vital in markets with regular new players. Conclusion It is said that a single size can never match it all. Many companies believe that the quickest method to widen business territories is exercising mergers and acquisition. Mergers results in economies of scale and collaboration resulting to reduced cost and increased operations. Stakeholders will agree to the idea of merging if they believe they believe it will lead to them having competitive advantage over their rivals. Advantages goes on and include gaining competitive advantage, market dominance, reduced operational costs among others. However, such a decision to merge come up with some disadvantages including employee competition and rivalry. Implementing ERP will make management of the different departments including accounts, tour guides, bookings among others. Recommendation Monet management, therefore, should go ahead to implement the decision because with it comes along a package of several advantages mentioned. Also for Monet to maintain market power then it should be gathering information on both their loyal and new customers on their preferences every season so as not to give them an option. It is also necessary for them to always follow up on clients about the services they received and what they would like get improved. References Agnihotri, R. S., Rapp, A. A., Business Expert Press. (2010).Effective sales force automation and customer relationship management: A focus on selection and implementation. New York, N.Y.] (222 East 46th Street, New York, NY 10017: Business Expert Press. Bainbridge, S. (2017).Mergers and acquisitions: A transactional perspective. Foundation Press. Chetty, N. G. (2016).The operational benefits of ERP adoption by third-party logistics organisations in South Africa. Chew, E. K., Gottschalk, P. (2009).Information technology strategy and management: Best practices. Hershey: Information Science Reference. Cohen, E. B. (2012).Issues in informing science and information technology. Santa Rosa (California: Informing Science Press. Dringoli, A. (2016).Merger and Acquisition Strategies. Gleich, R., Kierans, G., Hasselbach, T. (2010).Value in due diligence: New risks, new mitigation. Farnham: Gower. Hassan, I., Ghauri, P. N. (2014).Evaluating companies for mergers and acquisitions. Humby, C., Hunt, T., Phillips, T. (2008).Scoring Points: How Tesco Continues to Win Customer Loyalty. London: Kogan Page. Information Resources Management Association. (2011).Enterprise information systems: Concepts, methodologies, tools and applications. Hershey: Business Science Reference. Karenfort, S. (2011).Synergy in mergers acquisitions: The role of business relatedness. Kimbrell, J., Ellis, M. L., East Carolina University. (2013).The impacts of Web 2.0, Web 3.0, and Web 4.0 technologies used in distance education. Greenville, N.C.: East Carolina University. Murugesan, S. (2010).Handbook of research on Web 2.0, 3.0, and X.0: Technologies, business, and social applications. Hershey, PA: Information Science Reference. Nelson, R., Joos, I. M., Wolf, D. M. (2013).Social media for nurses: Educating practitioners and patients in a networked world. Ozkan, C. B. (2010).Free and open source software for e-learning: Issues, successes, and challenges. Hershey PA: Information Science Reference. Sherman, A. J. (2011).Mergers acquisitions from A to Z. New York: American Management Association. Worster, A. J., Weirich, T. R., Andera, F. J. C. (2012).Maximizing Return on Investment Using ERP Applications. Somerset: Wiley. Zeidler, C. (2009).Mobile support in customer loyalty management: An architectural framework. Wiesbaden: Gabler Edition Wissenschaft.

Techniques for Detecting, Preventing or Mitigating DoS or Distributed DoS attacks

Introduction The internet has become part of the daily lives of people throughout the world. Some services such as banking, transportation, and healthcare are heavily dependent on it. According to Patrikakis, Masikos, and Zouraraki (2004), the internet is an intricate system of computers that are linked with the intention of creating an easy communication platform.Advertising We will write a custom research paper sample on Techniques for Detecting, Preventing or Mitigating DoS or Distributed DoS attacks specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More The frequent use of the internet, like other systems, has been associated with problems, with the example being the Denial of Service (DoS) attacks (Patrikakis, Masikos, Zouraraki, 2004). Different researchers have looked at how these attacks occur and/or the available methods of detecting prevention and mitigation. According to Patrikakis, Masikos, and Zouraraki (2004), a Denial of Service attack occurs when individuals or groups of individuals attempt to block the provision of internet services by an internet company to its users. On the other hand, Distributed Denial of Services occurs when the threat originates from multiple sources (Patrikakis, Masikos, Zouraraki, 2004). This research paper reviews some of the documented methods of detecting, preventing, or mitigating Denial of Service (DoS) and Distributed Denial of Service (DDoS). Background The prevalence of DoS and DDOS attacks has constantly been on the increase with the increased number of internet users and number of people with skills being capable of initiating the same. The prevalence of these attacks has necessitated increased research, with a number of articles being available on the same. The techniques used are constantly changing to keep up with the pace at which the attackers are changing their own tactics. The articles selected for review in the research paper were those that featured the appropriate me thods that are currently in use. The attack on DoS and DDoS takes different shapes. Different researchers have described the examples of the attacks together with how they may be prevented. The individuals and groups involved in the development of these attack methods have constantly developed tactics of evading any method that is developed to counter them, and hence the need for new methods to retain the security of the internet and its users. These methods are discussed below. Techniques from the Articles This section looks at the findings from the different articles. Charalampos Patrikakis, Michalis Masikos, and Olga Zouraraki (2004) did the first article that describes the detection, prevention, and mitigation of the DoS and DDoS attacks. In this article, the researchers describe the meaning of the internet, DoS and DDoS, and/or how the attacks on DoS and DDoS occur (Patrikakis, Masikos, Zouraraki, 2004).Advertising Looking for research paper on communications media? Let' s see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More They discuss the basic mechanisms in the development of the problem before proceeding to examine how they lead to the eventual collapse of services over the internet for a company. Some of the mechanisms in use for detecting, preventing, and mitigating the attacks are also discussed in the article. One preventive measure that is suggested in the article is the constant update of software in machines (Patrikakis, Masikos, Zouraraki, 2004). Attacks are described as often occurring in machines that are not frequently updated. According to Patrikakis, Masikos and Zouraraki (2004), the update of software allows machines to work against the malicious attacks with ease. The users are able to prevent the attacks effectively as the software prevents the possibility of participating in an attack without its prior knowledge, and hence an effective measure of prevention. Observations show that frequently updated ma chines are better protected. The second protection measure discussed in the article is the monitoring of any access to the computer, installation of security patches and firewalls, and the adoption of automatic detection systems for intrusion (Patrikakis, Masikos, Zouraraki, 2004). According to Patrikakis, Masikos, and Zouraraki (2004), this method causes reduced traffic for offenders, with the machine frequently reporting on its health to a network. The owners are also able to keep track of the machine performance, thus allowing them to make any necessary changes, and hence an effective method of prevention that allows a greater degree of prevention of DoS and DDoS attacks (Patrikakis, Masikos, Zouraraki, 2004). The detection measure that is discussed in the article is signature detection, which involves the detection of footprints or signatures that are associated with sources of malicious programs (Patrikakis, Masikos, Zouraraki, 2004). The programs matching this signature are denied access to the machine, thus leading to a reduction of attacks. The researchers confirm that the method is effective because it is reliable and easy to utilize, with a better outcome in the detection of attacks as compared to other methods (Patrikakis, Masikos, Zouraraki, 2004).Advertising We will write a custom research paper sample on Techniques for Detecting, Preventing or Mitigating DoS or Distributed DoS attacks specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Zargar Saman, James Joshi and David Tipper (2013) provide the other article that looks at DoS and DDoS attacks. This article also defines the Distributed Denial of Services. It states that they are attempts to disrupt legitimate users of the internet. Besides, it discusses the existing measures in the prevention and mitigation of the same. The first detection mechanism that is stated in the article is the trace back mechanism. According to Zargar, Joshi, and Tipper (2013), thi s mechanism involves the tracing of IP packets backward to the real sources instead of leading to the forged IO addresses. This mechanism allows for detection and tracing of the origin of attackers. It is effective in achieving this goal. According to Zargar, Joshi, and Tipper (2013), the two categories in which these mechanisms apply is the packet marking and/or through link testing. The second detection mechanism stated in the article is the use of network-based mechanisms (Zargar, Joshi, Tipper, 2013). In these mechanisms, the measures to detect the attacks and the attackers are deployed within the network with the application of routers (Zargar, Joshi, Tipper, 2013). In these detection mechanisms, the main example is the use of the route-based packet filtering strategy (Zargar, Joshi, Tipper, 2013). This measure is effective since it allows the detection of threats while still in the network. The users do not receive the attacks on their machines. The process of detection is automated and more effective. One of the measures that are used to prevent attacks from the malicious individuals is the Active Internet Traffic Filtering (Zargar, Joshi, Tipper, 2013). In this mechanism, the receiver of the services opts to deny traffic to all unrecognized connections while only accepting traffic that is owned by a predetermined network (Zargar, Joshi, Tipper, 2013). This means that receivers have control over what they can access and/or what gains access to their machines. This measure is effective in prevention of threats since most of the threats are from unrecognized sources. The third article looks at the results of a survey conducted on the defense mechanisms to counter DoS and DDoS. It looks specifically at the network-based mechanisms (Peng, Leckie, Ramamohanarao, 2006). One of the detection techniques discussed by Peng, Leckie, and Ramamohanarao (2006) is the MULTOPS scheme that was proposed by Gil and Poletto in 2001.Advertising Looking for research paper on communications media? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More In this technique, the evaluation of packet rate is done between a subnet and the host (Peng, Leckie, Ramamohanarao, 2006). The assumption is that the rate is always proportional. When a disproportion is noted, there is an indication of a likely DoS attack (Peng, Leckie, Ramamohanarao). This scheme is useful as it helps detect the possible threats before they cause significant damage. However, some of the attackers have found ways of confusing the process. The other detection technique that Peng, Leckie, and Ramamohanarao (2006) discuss in their article is the SYN detection that they stated to have originated from Wang and his colleagues in 2002. This detection method evaluates the ration of several factors, including SYN, FIN, and RST (Peng, Leckie, Ramamohanarao, 2006). This method is as effective as any other method of detecting attacks. Users in the past have often described it as effective. The opinion is that the use of this method in the detection of DoS attacks will be ad equate. The use of ratios of different packets according to Peng, Leckie and Ramamohanarao (2006) is effective in the end because many attacks are prevented based on their characteristics (Peng, Leckie, Ramamohanarao, 2006). The article also discusses some of the prevention measures that may be used for DoS and DDoS attacks. One of the prevention measures that are discussed is the Ingress/Egress filtering, which involves the filtering of traffic that is coming to the local network together with the one that is leaving the same network (Peng, Leckie, Ramamohanarao, 2006). In this method, the malicious codes that are involved in the attack are filtered before they make any changes to the local network. They result in the security of the network as a whole (Peng, Leckie, Ramamohanarao, 2006). This measure is effective in the prevention of attacks to DoS and DDoS. The fourth article was selected based on its relevant to the subject on DoS and DDoS attacks. In this article by John Vac ca (2002), the internet service providers (ISPs) are recognized as important contributors towards network security. Their collaboration with customers is recognized as important in this measure. The article states a number of measures to detect intrusion and DoS and DDoS attacks in networks. The example of a measure that is proposed in the detection of attacks is the use of special software (Vacca, 2002) such as anti-viruses and online software that can filter the threats to the network and its users. This measure is deemed useful. The next suggested measure is the use of intrusion detection systems (Vacca, 2002). In this particular detection measure, Vacca (2002) confirms that the ISP Company will be efficient in evaluating the magnitude of the threats and use the available resources to counter them. The main example provided is the use of measures such as the specified intrusion detection systems. The measure is effective. The last article looks at the prevention of DoS and DDoS a ttacks through cooperation between the ISPs and the companies that form the bulk of their customers (Work Together To Stop DoS Attacks, 2001). The article states that the attacks may be mitigated through cooperation between the ISPs since they can exchange information on the sources of these attacks and lead to a safer internet (Work Together To Stop DoS Attacks, 2001). The article cites some of the attacks that have occurred, including the damage that they had on the respective organizations. The other measure that is proposed is the cooperation between customers and the internet service providers. This collaboration is touted as an important way of mitigating the threats posed by these attacks (Work Together to Stop DoS Attacks, 2001). The author states that networks must evaluate the measures that work in the prevention of attacks, including the network architecture and data access systems (Work Together to Stop DoS Attacks, 2001). These are recognized as important measures in th e achievement of total internet security. The article does not mention some of the measures that are specific to the detection of DoS and DDoS attacks. However, it establishes cooperation as an important measure in their prevention. Conclusion The internet is an important tool in the daily lives of most individuals. There are institutions that are dependent on it for normal functioning. Developments in security have led to frequent DoS and DDoS attacks, with internet users paying the price. These attacks have necessitated the creation of measures that are aimed at prevention, detection, and mitigation of any threats as discussed in the research paper. Reference List Patrikakis, C., Masikos, M., Zouraraki, O. (2004). Distributed Denial of Service Attacks. The Internet Protocol Journal, 7(4), 1-13. Peng, T., Leckie, C., Ramamohanarao, K. (2006). Survey of Network-based Defence Mechanisms Countering the DoS and DDoS Problems. ACM Transactions on Computational Logic, 2(3), 1-46. Vacca , J. (2002). Partnering for protection: ISPs and their customers must work together for stronger network security. Web. Work Together To Stop DoS Attacks. (2001). Web. Zargar, T., Joshi, J., Tipper, D. (2013). Survey of Defense Mechanisms Against Distributed Denial of Service (DDoS) Flooding Attacks. IEEE Communications Surveys Tutorials. Web. This research paper on Techniques for Detecting, Preventing or Mitigating DoS or Distributed DoS attacks was written and submitted by user Sara L. to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

Child Development 0 19 Years Essay Example

Child Development 0 19 Years Essay Describe the expected pattern of children and young people’s development from birth – 19 years. 0 – 3 Months Physical development Many babies who are under three months old cry a lot. From birth, a babys reflexes will allow them to turn their heads and to suckle when you touch their cheek. Their sucking and grasping reflexes will develop. They can flex and extend their fingers, arms and legs. By about 4 weeks their eyes can follow a moving light, although it may only be for a few seconds. By 2-3 months, they can watch and follow a moving face. By 6 weeks their eyes can move together most of the time. When lying on their stomach they will start to lift their heads and chest and support the upper body with their arms. By 2 months, they will enthusiastically kick their legs and will push down on them when their feet are placed on a firm surface. Communication and Intellectual development A baby this young will watch faces intently and will begin to imitate movements and facial expressions. They will start to recognize familiar objects and people at a distance. They will start Smiling and cooing in response to others, and will start to babble and even imitate some sounds. We will write a custom essay sample on Child Development 0 19 Years specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Child Development 0 19 Years specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Child Development 0 19 Years specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer By about 8 weeks they will listen to what you say, then make noises back as they talk to you. Babies will turn their heads toward the direction of sound. Babies at this age will have different cries for different needs. Social, emotional and behavioural development Between 4 – 8 weeks, babies watches you face when you talk to them. They often begin to smile at a familiar face by around 4 to 6 weeks, and will look at you carefully from around the same time. By 3 months, they can laugh out loud. 3 Months – 1 year Physical development Between 3 to 6 months baby will start rolling over back to front, they might start sitting up with support and possibly unsupported. Passing toys from one hand to the other and banging them together will create great amusement to baby. They will start following objects with her eyes and judging accurately how near and far away they are. From 6 – 9 months they will start sitting up without being supported, they will start standing up, cruise furniture and perhaps even walk. Some infants never crawl, however, by 9 months, many babies find crawling to be an exciting way to get around. Their hand eye coordination will develop even more. Develop full colour vision and distance vision matures. By now babies will hear and see as well as an adult. They can reach with one hand and transfer objects from one and to another. Between 9 – 12 months babies can crawls forwards on their bellies, pull themself up to stand, walk holding on to furniture, and may even walk two or three steps without support. Reaches sitting position without assistance and can get from sitting to crawling. They will take objects out of containers and poke with their index finger. They can use the pincer grasp and will let objects go voluntarily. By now they have triple their birth weight. Communication and Intellectual development A baby between 3 – 6 months will watch faces closely, responds to their own name. Baby will smiles at the sound of a familiar voice and starts to babble and imitate some sounds. They will respond to music and turn their heads toward sound. They will vocalise excitement and pleasure. Baby will start making gurgling sounds when left alone and playing with you. Between 6 – 9 months babies begin to develop a better awareness of the world. They will develop the ability to realize that objects still exist, despite the fact that they are out of sight. They will be able to finds partially hidden objects. Babies at this age will explore with their hands and mouth. By 12 months babies will explores objects in many different ways (shaking, banging, throwing, and dropping) and will finds hidden objects easily. They can looks at the correct picture when an image is named they will also imitate gestures. Babies will begin to use objects correctly. Start to recognise common words like milk, cup, shoe, and respond to simple requests. Social, emotional and behavioural development Babies between 3 – 6 months will begin to display a social smile, they will enjoys social play and might get upset when playing stops. They will express themselves and communicate more with their face and body. Baby will be drawn to their own image in the mirror. Might start to learn how to comfort themselves. Baby will respond to other peoples expressions of emotion. Between 6 – 9 months babies might develop what is called â€Å"stranger anxiety†. This period is not permanent, and usually fades over time. They will seek attention and show strong feelings about likes and dislikes. Baby begins to recognize and identify their own feelings and that they are different, they will also begin to realize that they are a separate person. By the end of year 1 baby might still appear shy or anxious with strangers and may cry when the caregiver leaves. They enjoy imitation and will repeat sounds or gestures, engage you in a conversation and copy simple hand games like clap hands or bye bye. Show specific preferences for certain people and toys. They test parental responses to their behaviour. Baby will enjoy finger-feeding themselves. They will start to extend arm or leg to help when being dressed. Peek-a-boo and hiding are favourite games because they play out in a simple way the comings and goings of people that baby has come to recognize and depend upon. 1 – 2 Years Physical Development Baby will walk without assistance, and might even walk backwards. Baby would be able to use their feet to push themself along on a ride-on. They can move from sitting to standing by using their hands to push themselves up, and can pick up toys while standing. They can push and pull objects, paint and scribble. Baby will love climbing on and off furniture and may begin to run. Start feeding themselves and drink from a cup without needing help. They have mastered the pincer grip and can now pick up small objects. By the end of year 2 they can take off an article of clothing. Baby can run in a direction with accuracy and stop when they need to. Most toddlers can walk down stairs while holding onto the banister. They can push buttons and turn knobs. Communication and Intellectual development They will recognize themselves in the mirror. They will find objects when hidden. Toddlers will understand and responds properly to words and commands. They can distinguish between â€Å"you† and â€Å"me†. May even begin to match similar objects. They will say more words every month by 12 months they can say about 1-3 words, 18 months about 10-50 words, 24 months about 300 words they will also use some simple questions. Toddlers at this age will start putting two words together in a basic sentence. They can point to body parts and pictures in books. They use objects for their intended purpose. Because of their developing imagination, they have trouble knowing what is real and what is pretend. They’ll request information by saying, ‘What’s that? . They will enhance words with gestures and tone of voice. Social, emotional and behavioural development Toddlers will become more communicative and expressive with face and body and imitate some movements and facial expressions. They develop a sense of security. They will be curious and energetic but he depends on an adults presence for reassurance. Toddler s at this age enjoy repetitive games. They show a interest in other children but usually just plays alongside them. They want to do its all themselves and may experience unbearable frustration if they cant master a task. Their ability to feed themselves is slowly improving and they are likely to be choosey about what they eat. 2 – 3 Years Physical Development Toddlers between 2 – 3 years are very active, they can run forward, jump in place with one foot, kick a ball, bend over and climb over things with ease. Toddlers can help dress and undress themselves and hold a pencil in a writing position. They will start making up-and-down, side-to-side, and circular lines with pencil or crayon. They can turns book pages one at a time, and enjoy building towers. They will start to screw and unscrews jar lids, nuts, and bolts and turn rotating handles. They can walk up and down stairs, alternating feet (one foot per stair step). Communication and Intellectual development Toddlers will start to observe and imitate more complex actions, and follow a two- or three-part command. They are typically egocentric, or self-centred, in their thinking. Start to use two or three word sentences, and will understand differences in meanings. They start to plays make-believe with dolls, animals, and people, and can make mechanical toys work. Some toddlers can complete puzzles with three or four pieces, and will start to understand the concept of two. They can recognize and identify almost all common objects and pictures. By the end of 3 years they would Use pronouns and some plurals, and strangers would be able to understand most of their words. Social, emotional and behavioural development They will continue to explore the world around them. They start to show affection for others, and will express affection more openly. Toddlers will be able to play by himself or herself, but might start to show challenging behaviour. They will imitate adults and playmates. They can take turns in games and understands the concept of mine and his/hers. Toddlers at this age will express a wide range of emotions and may object to major changes in routine. A 2-3 year old cannot yet understand reason or control their impulses. 3 – 7 Years Physical Development By the end of year 4 they can walk backwards and forwards unselfconsciously; turn and stop well. They can jump off low steps or objects, but find it hard to jump over objects. They will run around obstacles and balance on one foot unsteadily. Toddlers will love to Push, pull, steer toys, throwing and catching a ball. They will begin to ride trikes. They will play actively, but tire suddenly. They can dress and undress themselves. 4 – 5 year olds can Jumps forwards many times, do somersaults, skip unevenly and walk up and down stairs. Might be able to stand on one foot for five seconds, and will judge well when placing feet on climbing structures. They will enjoy jumping on a small trampoline. They have increased endurance in play. They will start to draw crosses, circles and even a person. Between 5 – 7 years the large muscles in their arms and legs are more developed than small muscles children can bounce a ball and run, but it is difficult to do both at the same time. They can walk backward quickly; skip and run with agility and speed. They will start to incorporate motor skills into games. They would be able to jump over objects, hop well, climb well, jump down several steps; jump rope and coordinate movements for swimming or bike riding. They have high energy levels in play and rarely show signs of fatigue. Their coordination for catching and throwing will continue to increase. They also have an improved reaction time in response. Fine motor skill development will continue to improve, they will be able to use a pencil to make letters words, and sentences. Children would be able draw people, houses and trees in more detail. They will be able to do a series of motions in a row in order to do a complicated motor activity. They would be able to balance on one foot for 10 seconds or more. Communication and Intellectual development Between 3 – 4 years children have pretty much mastered some basic rules of grammar use many sentences that have more than four words. The average 3 ? year old knows more than 1200 words. They also understands simple questions, and ask a lot of â€Å"why† and â€Å"how† questions. They will be able to tell people their own name and age. Children at this age will start to attend to activities for longer periods of time, they learn by observing and listening. Children will shows awareness of past and present and follow a series of two to four directions. They can point to and names colours, grasp the concept of counting they may even know a few numbers. They understand order and process. Also they start to play around with words a lot more and engage in fantasy play. By the time they are 5 they will be able to uses sentences that give lots of detail and tell stories that stick to a topic and is longer. They will also start to answer simple questions about a story. They can count 10 or more objects and correctly name at least four or more colours. They improve on their understanding of time. They might know a few nursery rhymes which they can say, repeat or sing. Between 5 – 7 years there is a rapid development of mental skills, children would have greater ability to describe experiences and talk about thoughts and feelings. They will begin to think logically, and will have greater concern for others. Their comprehension and use of language becomes more sophisticated. They will share opinions in clear speech and engage in conversations. Children have a receptive vocabulary of approximately 20,000 words. Start to understand ‘left’ and ‘right’. Social, emotional and behavioural development By the end of year 5 children would develops friendships and interact with other children. They are learning to understand about the feelings and needs of others, and their behaviour shows that they can feel sympathy for others and can share their toys and take turns. Start to engage in pretend play and will often develop favourite games like mummies and daddies and superman. They start to compares themselves to others. Children have a good understanding of right and wrong. They will become more independent and can usually separate from parents/carers without distress. They become aware of their gender. Sometimes children would be demanding, and other times they will be eagerly cooperative. By the time children are 7 they have an even stronger sense of right and wrong. They have an increased ability to engage in competition. They begin to have awareness of the future and grow a greater understanding about ones place in the world. Start to have feelings about how they look and how they are growing. Children in this age group are aware of being a girl or a boy and often prefer to play with children of their sex. 7 – 9 years Physical Development Children will start to gain weight faster, and grow an average of 2. 5 inches per year. In these years many children place great emphasis on the development of their own physical ability. Being able to do handstands, hit the ball, ride fast, etc, often carries considerable status within the peer group. Generally speaking their energy levels are high and they can do a fast majority of physical activities. They will become more graceful with their movements and abilities. By the end of year 9 they will be able to dress and groom themselves completely. They have the ability to use tools. Communication and Intellectual development Children at this age are often very excited by, and genuinely interested in, the outside world. They can absorb information with enthusiasm. They have beginning skills in reading, writing and maths and the capacity to express relatively complex ideas. Sadly they will begin to understand that Father Christmas is not real. They might be able to tell the time and will have some understanding of money. They can start to plan ahead and know left hand rom right. Children will now know the different tenses (past, now and future) and would be able to use correct tenses in sentences. They can tell jokes and riddles. At about 8 children would be confident using the telephone. Many will begin to enjoy reading a book on their own. Social, emotional and behavioural development There will be a gradual development of children’s social skills. Children have a great desire to fit in and be accepted by their peer group. Children want to play with children of the same sex and sometimes stereotype members of the opposite sex. They will have increased confidence and greater responsibility. They will like to win at games but will not yet be able to lose cheerfully. They are starting at 8-9 years to understand another person’s view of things. They will start to like team games. They become increasingly independent of their parents, but still need their comfort and security. They are able to resolve conflicts verbally and know when to seek adult help. 9 – 12 years Physical Development They will continue to grow taller and bigger. Girls are generally speaking 2 years ahead of boys in physical maturity. Girls will grow buds of breasts at ten or eleven, their hips will take shape and they may begin to menstruate at eleven or twelve. Children have an increase in body strength and hand dexterity. They have improved coordination and reaction time. Some boys may experience masturbation and nocturnal emissions. The remainder of their adult teeth will develop. Adult type tools can be used, such as saws and hammers. Children can construct simple structures and sew basic garments. Their handwriting becomes more fluid, automatic and less of an effort. Their writing speed also increases. Communication and Intellectual development They have an increase in abstract thinking- children would be able to think about what could happen rather than what did happen. Children can fantasize and speculate. Children at this age are more likely to question your rules and values rather than follow them and things may often seem unfair to them. They will become more project and goal oriented and might develop special interests in collections or hobbies. They will enjoy games with more complex rules. They are learning to plan ahead and evaluate what they do. Their comprehension and use of language becomes more sophisticated. They often share their opinions. They may pick up on words that peers use. Children could begin to learn new language without understanding the meaning. Likes to write stories, letters, reads well and enjoys using the telephone. Social, emotional and behavioural development Children at this age will like being a member of a club and will enjoy rituals, rules, secrets, codes, and made-up languages. They may form more complex friendships and might prefer spending more time with friends than with parents. By eleven children is much more interested in, and affected by, the norms of their friends. They start to have better control over anger. They might experience more peer pressure. Children will become more interested in the opposite gender. They are able to resolve social problems like fights with friends and siblings. They also have the ability to understand others people’s point of view. 12 – 16 Years Physical Development Adolescence is a time of rapid growth in height and weight. The changes in children’s bodies at this age are rapid and can be dramatic. Boys grow body hair, their voices deepen, and their testicles increase in size. They experience a massive boost of testosterone. Boy’s testes begin to enlarge, their muscles will fill out and strength increases dramatically. Girls may grow body hair and breasts and start menstruating. Many will mature radically in their facial features. Acne may appear as oil glands become more active. Their appetite and need for sleep will increase. Their sexual desires and fantasies also increase. Communication and Intellectual development Adolescents are able to think more abstractly. They are better able to express feelings through talking. They have a very strong sense of right and wrong. Between 13 and 16 children’s ways of thinking about themselves, others, and the world shift to a much more adult level. Arguing and reasoning skills improve. They learn to use deductive reasoning and make educated guesses. They will be able to construct hypothetical solutions to a problem and evaluate which is best. Their focus on the future develops and they learn to recognize that current actions can have an effect on the future. They will start to set personal goals. Adolescent’s decision-making skills improve; they begin to independently differentiate right from wrong and develop a conscience. They also learn to distinguish fact from opinion. Social, emotional and behavioural development Adolescents have increased concern about body image, looks, and clothes. They are self-absorbed. They are more interested in and influenced by their peer group. They become less affectionate, sometimes moody, rude or short-tempered. They may experiment with risky behaviours and adult roles. Conflict is common as they begin to reject adult values and ideas. Close friendships develop, particularly for girls. Some children might lose self-confidence or self-esteem during this time. 16 – 19 Years Physical Development 5% of children have reached their adult height. Many of the major physical changes have occurred. There is advanced growth of secondary sex characteristics such as facial and body hair in boys, and breasts in girls. They will continue brain development until late adolescence. The likelihood of sexual desire and perhaps activity is increased. Communication and Intellectual d evelopment At this age they might have an increased concern for the future and how to integrate knowledge and decision making. They have well defined work habits and greater capacity for setting goals. Their organizational skills improve. They tend to be self-regulated and self-absorbed. Teens are better able to solve problems, think about their future, appreciate opinions of others and understand the long-term effects of their decisions. However, teens tend to use these skills inconsistently; as a result, they sometimes do things without thinking first. Social, emotional and behavioural development They are moving towards independence and have a firmer sense of self. They have developed sense of humour. They have the ability to compromise and make important decisions. Teens may experiment in risk taking behaviour. Relationships with parents can either be very friendly or can deteriorate. The behaviour of teens is very varied; they may enjoy activities with the opposite sex or they may completely avoid the opposite sex. Teenagers may appear angry, impulsive, lonely, confused, self-centred, stubborn and moody. They may struggle with conflicting feelings. Teens want control over more aspects of their life. Use of alcohol, tobacco, and other drugs is more common now than before. They may have strong sexual urges, and many become sexually active. Teens become more aware of their sexual orientation (homosexual, heterosexual, bisexual).

Spanish Nouns of Ambiguous Gender

Spanish Nouns of Ambiguous Gender Nearly all nouns in Spanish can be placed in one of two categories - masculine and feminine. However, there are some words of ambiguous gender that dont fit quite so neatly. Of course, some words, such as names of many occupations, are masculine when they refer to men and feminine when they refer to women, as in el dentista for the male dentist and la dentista for the female dentist. And there are some nouns whose meanings vary with gender., such as el cometa (comet) and la cometa (kite). However, there are also words that, for whatever reason, havent been firmly established as being of one gender or the other. List of Common Gender-Ambiguous Nouns Following are the most common of these words. Where just el or la appears before the word, it is the gender that is viewed most widely as correct, and the gender that should be learned by foreigners. Where both appear, either gender is widely accepted, although the most commonly used gender is listed first. Where no gender is listed, the usage depends on region. la acnà © - acne el anatema - anathema el arte - art - The masculine is used when arte is singular, but the feminine is often used in the plural, as in artes bellas (fine arts). el autoclave - sterilizer el azà ºcar - sugar - Although azà ºcar is a masculine word when standing alone, it is often used with feminine adjectives, as in azà ºcar blanca (white sugar). la babel - bedlam el calor - heat - The feminine form is archaic. la/el chinche - small insect el cochambre - dirt el color - color - The feminine form is archaic. el cutis - complexion la dote - talent la/el dracma - drachma (former unit of Greek currency) la duermevela - brief, light, or interrupted sleep - Compound nouns formed by joining a third-person verb and a noun are nearly always masculine. However, the ending apparently has influenced usage of this word toward the feminine. el enema - enema los herpes - herpes la/el Internet - Internet - The general rule is that nouns imported from other languages are masculine unless theres a reason for making them feminine. In this case, the feminine is often used because the word for a computer network (red) is feminine. el interrogante - question la Januc - Hanukkah - Unlike the names of most holidays, Januc is usually used without a definite article. el/la lente, los/las lentes - lens, glasses la libido - libido - Some authorities say that libido and mano (hand) are the only Spanish nouns ending in -o, other than shortened forms of longer words (such as foto for fotografà ­a and disco for discoteca, or occupational words, such as la piloto for a female pilot), that are feminine. However, libido  is often treated as masculine. la/el linde - boundary el mar - sea - Mar is usually masculine, but it becomes feminine in some weather and nautical usages (such as en alta mar, on the high seas). el/la maratà ³n - marathon - Dictionaries list maratà ³n as masculine, but feminine usage is almost as common, perhaps because maratà ³n is associated so closely with carrera (competitive race), which is feminine. el/la mimbre - willow la/el pelambre - thick hair el/la prez - esteem, honor la/el pringue - grease radio - radio - When it means radius or radium, radio is invariably masculine. When it means radio, it is feminine in some areas (such as Spain), masculine in others (such as Mexico). el reuma - rheumatism sartà ©n - frying pan - The word is masculine in Spain, feminine in much of Latin America. la testuz - forehead of an animal la tilde - tilde, accent mark el tizne - soot, stain el tortà ­colis - stiff neck la treponema - type of bacteria - Like some other words of limited medical usage, this word is feminine according to dictionaries but usually masculine in actual use. el trà ­pode - tripod la/el vodka - vodka la/el web - web page, web site, World Wide Web - This word may have entered the language as a shorter form of la pgina web (web page), or it may be feminine because red (another word for the Web, or a computer network in general) is feminine. el yoga - yoga - Dictionaries list the word as masculine, but the ending has led to some feminine usage. Key Takeaways A few dozen Spanish nouns are of ambiguous gender, meaning they can be either masculine or feminine without any difference in meaning.The nouns of ambiguous gender are distinguished from nouns of variable gender, whose genders vary with meaning or whether the noun refers to a male or female.A disproportionate number of the gender-ambiguous nouns are words with primarily scientific, technical, or medical usage.

Module Title- Journalism and Society Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Module Title- Journalism and Society - Essay Example The increasing contentious role of journalism is a major concern and therefore, we would be studying the role and impact of news media in the wider interest of the public. It is true that media, in all formats, exerts powerful influence. It is therefore, not surprising that in the last thirty years, number of ownership has been reduced to just 9 major media conglomerates (Bagdikian) who now own all the major media outlets which include TV, newspaper, radio, publishing houses and movie production houses. Since Media has the power to change public perception, news channels mostly have different channels for domestic and international audience and as per the coverage, content and the authenticity of the news, the media often gains an enviable status and popularity among the masses. The pressure on the journalists to conform to the diktats of the management has intensified. Richard Keeble has asserted that ‘In the face of the enormous cultural, ideological and financial power of the dominant media and their hierarchically organised management structures, it is not surprising that isolated journalists (driven by their consciences) feel impotent to effect change’. (2005, p58). Looking through the last two decade of media evolution, one finds that the democratic and conscientious approach towards various issues that so characterized the media in earlier years, has gradually turned towards capitalistic values. Initially, media served as a link between the community and the government. The newspapers and radio made conscious effort to raise the problems and issues which directly affected the community and their welfare. It acted as the watchdog of the public and made sure that the government adhered to policies and plans best suited for national and regional development. Gradually all that changed and the various media like newspaper and publishers, radio, TV network, motion picture etc. gravitated

Assessments for Marketing Management Term Paper

Assessments for Marketing Management - Term Paper Example In order to effect substantial growth, businesses have aimed to market their businesses beyond their geographical borders. This has made way to international marketing enabling businesses to compete at a global scale. As part of s marketing strategy, it is vital for a business to ascertain its status and relevance within a market in order to pave any way forward. The timing and the level of consumer demand help a business in establishing the right marketing avenue. The one in charge of the marketing strategy is usually the marketing managers in many organizations. In addition, a business should have detailed objectives and a better understanding of their businesses in order to initiate appropriate and cost friendly marketing engagement strategies. In this context, the marketing principle collides with strategic planning for effective implementation of the goals intended plan (Hill & Jones, 2012). For a long time, this form of management depended on three crucial aspects that are the customer, the competitor, and the company analysis aspects. These constitute the three C’s of marketing. However, this paper will dwell on various aspects that contribute towards effective marketing and access of a market audience. Question 1: Different needs that most consumers have Majorly, there are categories of consumer needs. These needs are stated, real, unstated, delight and secret needs. Ideally, a customer buys a product mainly for its ability to offer a solution to the need presented. In a break down, stated needs are those that a customer has articulated and seen the importance of having as a matter of priority. Here the cost of the solutions not the customer’s priority but the priority is the having any product satisfy the need. In addition, the taste or the choices of the product do not matter, as it is a matter of immediate problem solving and not spoiled choice. The second type of need is the real needs category that involves the consumer’s speci fic action in to what they are looking for. For instance, a consumer may mention what they do need but when it comes to the actual search or picking of the solution to their problem, they may pick on something different. In this regard, the price of the product that they intend to buy may hinder them from going for the most expensive hence meeting the real need with a relatively affordable product. Thirdly, there are the unstated needs that a customer may have but they do not say them out loud (Krishnamacharyulu & Ramakrishnan, 2011). This is to mean that these are needs, which a customer may not express, but still expected by the consumer. Essentially, these could be in terms the consumer expected prices of the commodity and assistance in ascertaining which product will have a pocket friendly price. In this regard, this need draws facilitation from the retailer selling the products. The fourth need that a consumer may have is the delight need that entails the surprise additional be nefits of acquiring the product during its sale. In essence, it is more appealing to a consumer when the product that they intended to buy has a buy one-get one free tag line. Ideally, any consumer would tend to go for a product that will give more for less irrespective of their quality attributes. Therefore, a consumer may go out to buy products to solve their needs but then change their minds when they get to the retail store because of the extra incentive factor. Lastly, the fifth type of need is the secret needs that are concealed inside a consumer’s head. Essentially, these are the needs, which application of a product solution will help the consumer be like a symbol within the products image. For instance, the hidden need when one uses a facial cream would be the need to become as the beauty queens used

What changes in Americans values and lifestyles signaled the rise of Essay

What changes in Americans values and lifestyles signaled the rise of consumer culture - Essay Example In politics, consumerism has been applied to symbolize something quite diverse known as consumerist movement, consumer activism or consumer protection. This strives to inform and protect consumers by demanding practices like product guarantees, honest advertising and packaging, and better safety standards. Therefore, in politics consumerism is a set of rules that are aimed at regulating the methods, services, and products. In addition, they regulate the standards of advertisers, sellers, and manufacturers in the benefits of the buyer. In the economic domain, consumerism denotes to financial policies putting weight on consumption. In a theoretical sense, it is the deliberation that the free selection of consumers must strongly direct the selection by producers of what is manufactured, and thus direct the financial organization of a society. In this case, consumer culture articulates the idea not of one voice, one man, but of one voice, one dollar that might not reflect the contribution of an individual to society1. Since the completion of the twentieth century, the economics, politics, and culture of the American’s has been remodeled by the rapid increase of consumer culture. In what has been purported to be the progress of the vicarious leisure class, and its difference from the overall body of the employed class, orientation has been made to an additional division of labor between the dissimilar servant classes2. A single part of the servant class, mainly those individuals whose job is vicarious leisure, emanate to carry out a new, lesser range of responsibilities- the vicarious consumption of goods. The most common form where the consumption happens is viewed in the wearing of uniforms and the livelihood of capacious servant quarters3. A scarcer, less effective, less obstructive, and widely prevalent form of vicarious consumption is the clothing, food consumption, furniture and dwelling by the woman and the rest of the national establishment. Noticeable

EGovernment: History, Causes and Trends

EGovernment: History, Causes and Trends BENCHMARKING EGOVERNMENT SERVICES Abstract: Governments around the world have embraced the use of Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs). This represents a relatively new branch of study within the IT field. EGovernment Services are provided through many different means of access and to a variance of audiences, citizens, businesses or even other governmental entities. After clarifying the definitions and differences among similar terms (i.e. eGovernance and Digital Government, eDemocracy) this paper examines how eGovernment is measured by analyzing the dominating methodologies that are used. Furthermore, following specifically the eGovernment benchmarking methodology that is used by the European Commission, a greater focus in the evolution of eGovernment in Greece has been made. The finding through this assessment was far from satisfactory. Particularly, comparing the 20 Basic eGovernment Services offered in Greece, from 2007 to 2009, no development in terms of improvement, has taken place. Finally, the measures tha t governments need to undertake are discussed. Introduction In the past years, assisted by the invasion of Information Technology in everyday lives, governments all over the world have begun widely using information technologies for increasing the effectiveness and quality of the services they provide. These initiatives have become known as â€Å"electronic government† or eGovernment services. In most cases, when words gain that attractive â€Å"e-â€Å" in front of them, the popular belief is that they have become â€Å"electronic†, whatever that means, even though in some cases it does not make much sense. This confusion is much more obvious when the original word itself has conceptual and abstract meanings. Words like Government and Governance. Section I presents the most popular definitions, choosing the one that describe each term the best, and clarifies boundaries between the most common terms. Furthermore, the different ways that eGovernment can be classified, depending on the delivery model or the audience, is outlined. Although the definitions of eGovernment may vary widely, there an obvious shared theme emerges; eGovernment involves using information technology, and especially the Internet, to improve the delivery of government services to citizens, businesses, and other government agencies. It acts as enabler for citizens to interact and receive services from governments twenty four hours a day, seven days a week. Monitoring eGovernment development and evaluating its effectiveness is a complex and challenging task, as the phenomenon is new and dynamic. In Section II, the basics of Benchmarking are presented and its structural elements are analyzed. Focusing on specific examples of methodology used, a set of four dominant practices that represent the longest running efforts for measuring eGovernment is chosen to be explored further. Using the reports publish by each one of them, on a periodical basis, their inner workings are analyzed and the various developments, changes and evolutions in the methods employed by each one are mentioned. Section III focuses at benchmarking of eGovernment Services in Europe. In order to recognize how eGovernment has evolved and matured within the European Union, the relevant European directives, initiatives and frameworks for the development of eGovernment Services in the region since 1999 are examined. Following that, the methodology used for benchmarking eGovernment the European Union is examined in detail. All measuring elements, including some that were used for the first time in the most recently published report are evaluated. Having established what eGovernment is, what Benchmarking is and how its methodologies function, Section IV uses the data from the latest European eGovernment Benchmarking Report, which was published in November 2009, to assess how the Greek eGovernment landscape evolved since the previous report in 2007. The results are disappointing. When comparing the 20 Basic eGovernment Services offered in Greece, there was no improvement, what so ever, from 2007 to 2009. Following that, Greek performance in the two new indices introduced in the latest report (EProcurement and User Experience) is reported and compared to the respective EU27+ average. Finally, in Section V, a general overview is provided along with the conclusions about the (lack of) progress in eGovernment in Greece. Scope and aims The scope of this project is to analyze how the meaning of eGovernment has evolved in the past few years and then review the current trends in benchmarking the penetration sophistication of eGovernment services in Europe and the rest of the world. Furthermore, this project reports and analyses the level of eGovernment services offered in Greece. The basic aims of this project are: Define the eGovernment ecosystem, typology and taxonomy. Analyse the dominant methodologies of benchmarking eGovernment services Gather and process existing results about eGovernment in Greece, regarding service penetration and sophistication, along with other relevant metrics. Resources This project relies heavily on research. In particular, a lot of research on what the different and sometimes contradicting terms that define eGovernment as well as the rest of the relevant terms in academic papers throughout the previous decade was made. Following that, further research about the current and past trends in benchmarking in general and eGovernment benchmarking in particular are is conducted. From there on, having established what eGovernment is and what the provided services should be, along with how they are measured, more research was conducted in order to reveal what the actual current level of provided eGovernment services is. To accomplish this, reports from many different parties are used. These include reports published both by well knows analyst firms or government bodies in various levels as well as reports issued at a global level such as the United Nations to local reports issued by the authorities of each country such as the IT Observatory in Greece. Typology Convention Throughout the bibliography, or any other sort of resource for that matter, â€Å"electronic† terms do not have a consistent representation. So, just like electronic mail can be found abbreviated in quite a few forms, â€Å"electronic† Government is abbreviated to eGovernment, e-Government, E-Government etc. To avoid this inconsistency, through this project the term eGovernment will be used (changed to EGovernment only in the beginning of sentences). This convention will apply to â€Å"electronic† terms that will be used such as eGovernance. I. EGovernment, eGovernance and Digital Governance EGovernment is one more of the recent years â€Å"buzzwords†. It is usually either paired with the word â€Å"services† at the end or other words like eGovernance and Digital Government. Like every other (relatively) new and cool â€Å"buzzword† they are used widely by a broad spectrum of individuals who represent mostly two different backgrounds. Information technology and politics. The first because it is a technological issue, the later because they have come to realize, even though a little late, that they represent an excellent vehicle for them to provide a better experience to anyone who interacts with the Government. But, what do these terms mean? Do they collide or conflict each other? How about covering or including one another? A. EGovernment Definitions There is not one, unique and commonly accepted definition for eGovernment. It is quite difficult to decide over a specific one but after the research made, the following definition from the World Bank (ÃŽ  ÃŽâ€˜ÃŽ ¡ÃŽâ€˜ÃŽ  ÃŽÅ¸ÃŽÅ"ÃŽ  ÃŽâ€") describes it best: â€Å"Government refers to the use by government agencies of information technologies (such as Wide Area Networks, the Internet, and mobile computing) that have the ability to transform relations with citizens, businesses, and other arms of government. These technologies can serve a variety of different ends: better delivery of government services to citizens, improved interactions with business and industry, citizen empowerment through access to information, or more efficient government management. The resulting benefits can be less corruption, increased transparency, greater convenience, revenue growth, and/or cost reductions ((AOEMA), 2004). Although other definitions have been provided, this definition is preferred. The reason is that it is the most concise and the easiest to be understood since apart describing in simple words how eGovernment is utilized, it goes on to offer a very brief, yet to the point, reference to its main advantages. EGovernment definitions various other sources as follows:  · United Nations definition ((AOEMA), 2004): â€Å"E-government is defined as utilizing the Internet and the world-wide-web for delivering government information and services to citizens.† * Global Business Dialogue on Electronic Commerce GBDe definition ((AOEMA), 2004): â€Å"Electronic government (hereafter e-Government) refers to a situation in which administrative, legislative and judicial agencies (including both central and local governments) digitize their internal and external operations and utilize networked systems efficiently to realize better quality in the provision of public services.† * Gartner Groups definition: â€Å"the continuous optimization of service delivery, constituency participation, and governance by transforming internal and external relationships through technology, the Internet and new media.† * Definition of the Working Group on eGovernment in the Developing World: E-government is the use of information and communication technologies (ICTs) to promote more efficient and effective government, facilitate more accessible government services, allow greater public access to information, and make government more accountable to citizens. E-government might involve delivering services via the Internet, telephone, community centers (self-service or facilitated by others), wireless devices or other communications systems.† EGovernment is in the first stages of development. Most governments have already taken or are taking initiatives offering government services online. However, for the true potential of eGovernment to be realized, government needs to restructure and transform its long entrenched business processes. EGovernment is not simply the process of moving existing government functions to an electronic platform. Rather, it calls for rethinking the way government functions are carried out today to improve some processes, to introduce new ones and to replace those that require it. The range of services that may be provided by e-government spans from simple information sites to fully interactive experiences where users and government engage in a dialog mediated by information technology. Internal information systems of Government agencies, information kiosks, automated telephone information services, SMS services and other systems all comprise e-Government services. All these are applications of Information and Communications Technologies (ICT) to improve the services of the Government towards its primary clients: the citizens. In the last few years, there has been much talk of mobile government or m-government. MGovernment refers to the use of wireless technologies like cellular/mobile phones, laptops and PDAs (Personal Digital Assistants) for offering and delivering government services. MGovernment is not a substitute for e-government, rather it complements it. 1. Benefits of eGovernment E-Government initiatives contribute to citizen empowerment by making information about government processes and decisions easily available, and allowing information-sharing among people and organizations, and between citizens and the civil service (Accenture and the Markle Foundation, 2001). Well-informed citizens are better able to hold their governments accountable. Governments are then compelled to improve the quality of services, expand accessibility of these services, and increase responsiveness to their constituents. Many Government services rely on information passed among different offices within a department or across departments. The large amount of information and paperwork required results in an environment where for red tape rips, the workforce is inefficient and bureaucratic, and the delivery of services is ineffective. With the usage of ICT, the government bureaucracy and citizens are both winners in the battle against the paper trail. eGovernment allows government kno wledge and data exchange to be accessed more easily (whether public or secure) by the appropriate offices or individuals. By this, it reduces redundancies of information flows, and resulting in overall increased productivity. Another result of the integration of operations of government agencies is the improvement of transparency in government. EGovernment minimizes redundant information flows, helps to eliminate duplications of functions, and improves the adherence of public servants to proper government procedures, thereby reducing opportunities for corruption. This, provided it is accompanied by well-informed and active citizens, will assist in limiting the relationship between bureaucracy and corruption and will help lead to a higher sense of accountability among officials. B. EGovernment Taxonomy EGovernment can be classified according to different criteria. It can be classified according to its level, its audience and last but certainly not least, according to the delivery mechanism used. 1. Reach EGovernment can be categorized in the following five distinct levels depending on how broad it is. The levels are: * International * National * Regional * State/Provisional * Local These levels are illustrated below (see 1 adapted from Heeks, 2006) 2. Audience The question of where eGovernment originates is pretty much self-explanatory. Nevertheless, the same does not apply when wondering about who is in the receiving end. The answer that first comes to mind is, the citizens. But isnt so. Apart from citizens, there are other entities that are benefited by eGovernment services. According to Backus, â€Å"the three main target groups that can be distinguished in eGovernment concepts are government, citizens and businesses/interest groups. The external strategic objectives focus on citizens and businesses and interest groups, the internal objectives focus on government itself† (Backus, 2001). a) Government to Citizens (G2C) Government to Citizen activities are those in which the government provides, on-line, one-stop access to information and services to citizens. G2C applications allow citizens to ask questions of government agencies and receive answers, such us: * File income taxes * Pay taxes * Arrange driving tests or renew drivers licenses * Pay traffic tickets * Make appointments for vehicle emission inspections and * Change their address In addition, a government could: * Distribute information on the web * Provide downloadable forms online * Conduct training (e.g., in some US States, the classes for the drivers tests are offered online) * Assist citizens in finding employment * Provide touristic and recreational information * Provide health advice about safety issues (e.g. warnings for epidemics like the recent H1N1 virus) * Allow transfer of benefits like food coupons * File natural disaster relief compensation electronically through the use of smart cards; and the list goes on. b) Government to Business (G2B) Government to Business activities refers to those where the government deals with businesses such as suppliers using the Internet and other ICTs. It is a bidirectional interaction and transaction: Government to Business (G2B) and Business to Government (B2G). B2G is about businesses selling products and services to government. The most important G2B areas are eProcurement (which essentially is actually a reverse auction) and the auction of government surpluses. c) Government to Government (G2G) Lastly, Government to Government refers to those activities that take place between different government organizations/agencies/entities. Many of these activities aim to improve the effectiveness and efficiency of overall government operations. One such example is the Intelink, an intranet that carries classified information shared by different U.S. intelligence agencies. 3. Delivery Mechanism EGovernment services are provided not only via the Internet. Instead, many other means are often used. In fact, studies and reports indicate that these â€Å"other† means of eGovernment services provision show in some cases extremely high utilization. For example: * Telephony dominates channel usage in some situations: Accenture (2005) reports 63% of industrialized country respondents contacting government by telephone; compared to 31% using the Internet over a 12-month period. * In-person visits dominate in other situations: an Australian survey reports half of government contacts to be face-to-face compared to one-fifth undertaken via the Internet (AGIMO 2005). * Survey data also reflects an ongoing preference for telephone or in-person channels especially for transactional, problem-solving, urgent and complex interactions (AGIMO 2005, Horrigan 2005). a) Multichannel Examples Some Governments have embraced this reality and adopted a multichannel approach to the services they offer. In its Progress Reports, the European Comission includes some specific examples: * In Malta, citizens can access their personal social security records and payments via the internet, and may also opt to be notified about their social security payments via SMS rather than receiving printed payment advice by post. However, the most innovative initiative is the introduction of eGovernment Agents that act as intermediaries to those without access. (ePractice eGovernment Factsheets Malta, 2009) * In Austria, all websites that belong to the .gv.at domain are available free of charge or connection fees via wireless hotspots (WLAN), and via public kiosks, thanks to an excellent cooperation between the Austrian Government and two major telecommunication providers. Similar to Malta, Austria also has legislation in place allowing officials to act as intermediaries for citizens who do not have online access or a citizen (ePractice eGovernment Factsheets Austria, 2009) * In Spain, 060 is the magic code providing a single access point. Many services provided by different administrations can be accessed via the 060 network, whether they are office-, internet-, or phone-based. Citizens can access the networks 2800 points of presence in the street or their office on the web, by the phone (060) or SMS. The 060 phone number is intended to replace over 1000 phone numbers available for citizens to access information of the General Administration of the State. The network is available 24/7 and currently offers 1225 national, regional and local public services. It is worth noting that In August 2007, only 15 months after its creation, the citizen information phoneline 060 had already dealt with 700000 enquiries. (ePractice eGovernment Factsheets Spain, 2009) C. EGovernance Definitions Just like eGovernment, there is not a single common definition to describe eGovernance. However, the UNESCO defines it best: â€Å"E-governance is the public sectors use of information and communication technologies with the aim of improving information and service delivery, encouraging citizen participation in the decision-making process and making government more accountable, transparent and effective. E-governance involves new styles of leadership, new ways of debating and deciding policy and investment, new ways of accessing education, new ways of listening to citizens and new ways of organizing and delivering information and services. E-governance is generally considered as a wider concept than e-government, since it can bring about a change in the way citizens relate to governments and to each other. E-governance can bring forth new concepts of citizenship, both in terms of citizen needs and responsibilities. Its objective is to engage, enable and empower the citizen.† Other definitions include * â€Å"EGovernance, meaning ‘electronic governance is using information and communication technologies (ICTs) at various levels of the government and the public sector and beyond, for the purpose of enhancing governance.† (Bedi et all, 2001, Holmes , 2001 and Okot-Uma, 2000). * Whereas according to Backus (2001), eGovernance is defined as the, â€Å"application of electronic means in (1) the interaction between government and citizens and government and businesses, as well as (2) in internal government operations to simplify and improve democratic, government and business aspects of Governance.† D. Digital Government The term Digital Governance was introduced more than 7 years ago (McIver Elmargarmid, 2002). Notions such as eGovernment, eGovernance and any future technology of ICT (e.g. Web 2.0 applications), should fall under the Digital Governance umbrella (Schellong, 2009). This term has been preferred by other researchers as well, due to the excessive usage of adding letters like â€Å"e† (electronic), â€Å"m† (mobile), â€Å"u† (ubiquitous) or â€Å"2.0† to government-related terms. Schellong goes further to suggest a specific typology (2008) as illustrated below in 2: EGovernment contains the terms: * EAdministration Internal use of ICT * EServices. External use of ICT * EDemocracy. Use of ICT for direct public participation in government (decision making or voting) EGovernance is a completely different branch and deals with government, society and economy. E. Open Government In the last decade, there have been many efforts to promote eGovernment. A new initiative has emerged though, Open Government, or OpenGov as it is usually abbreviated. OpenGovernment efforts have begun not only in the US but also in other countries, like Greece. Although OpenGovernment and eGovernment have similar characteristics and share common goals, the greatest one being the promotion of transparency, they are not the same. Open Government can be argued to be an evolution of eGovernment (GUSTETIC, 2009), since the only reason that it exists as an initiative today is because of advances made by eGovernment along with various technological improvements and innovations. II. Benchmarking A. Definition Benchmarking is defined as the process of measuring the performance of an organization along with the practices it applies in key areas and subsequently comparing them to other organizations. It is widely accepted in the private sector and is being used as a practical tool in order to achieve positive results with unlimited potential. EGovernment benchmarking means undertaking a review of comparative performance of eGovernment between nations or agencies. These studies have two purposes: * Internal: Benefit the individual and/or organization undertaking the benchmarking study * External: Benefit achieved for users of the study. This project falls into the first category, as described in the Scope and Aims paragraph earlier in the document. B. Goals With new expectations about their performance, government entities are being encouraged to look at ways of implementing changes in their practices. Benchmarking provides them with one of their most useful options. In every industry, there are ways of doing things that are broadly recognized as standard practices for that industry. However, every industry has its leaders. These leaders are organizations that over perform when measured against those standards. They have achieved â€Å"best practices† as demonstrated by their results in quality, cost, customer satisfaction and responsiveness. Benchmarking aims to discover what the â€Å"best practices† are that lead to superior performance. In greater detail, the process of benchmarking e-Government : * Fosters accountability for eGovernment projects. * Helps meeting rising public expectations * Enables government officials to take more informed decisions and corrective actions * Validates the generated public value * Fosters projects interchange Moreover, benchmarking can be distinguished from other traditional forms of evaluation by its attempt to visualize â€Å"best practices† through normalizing comparison and by urging public entities to ask themselves what they can do to promote them. Benchmarking enables and motivates them to determine how well current practices compare to others practices, locate performance gaps, experience best practices in action, and prioritize areas for improvement or other opportunities. It is quite important to note that â€Å"Benchmarking is not the same as benchmarks. Benchmarks are performance measures and benchmarking is the action of conducting the evaluation.† (Yasin, 2002). C. Data Sources After establishing what benchmarking is, the most common data sources are evaluated.. 1. Calculated Indicators Quite a few benchmarking reports use composite indicators, for example, for the purposes of national rankings. Because it is not always clear how they are calculated or researched, composites have been criticized (UIS 2003) for their lack of transparency along for their subjectivity. Fortunately, a guide for good practice in use of composites has been developed (eGEP 2006a:45) and includes: * Developing a theoretical framework for the composite. * Identifying and developing relevant variables. * Standardizing variables to allow comparisons. * Weighting variables and groups of variables. * Conducting sensitivity tests on the robustness of aggregated variables. Other than the composite calculation of national rankings, there seems to be little use of calculated indicators in the benchmarking of e-government. The most commonly used indicators include: * Benefit/Cost Ratio. * Demand/Supply Match. * Comparative Service Development. * National Ranking Some examples along with the methods used for each indicator are illustrated in Table 1below (adapted from Heeks, 2006). Calculated Indicator Example Method Benefit/Cost Ratio Expected financial benefit (impact) / Financial cost (input) (NOIE 2003) Interview (internal self-assessment / internal administrative records) Demand/Supply Match Preference for online channel in particular services versus Online sophistication of that service (Graafland Essers Ettendgui 2003) Mass citizen survey Comparative Service Development Stage model level of citizen services versus business services (Capgemini 2005) Stage model level of different service cluster areas (Capgemini 2005) Third party Web assessment National Ranking Composite of features and stage model level for national websites (West 2005) Composite of ICT and human infrastructure with stage model level for national/other websites (UN 2005) Composite of stage model level, integration and personalization of national websites (Accenture 2005) Third party Web assessment Table 1 Calculated Indicators Used in eGovernment Benchmarking (Heeks, 2006). 2. Standard Public Sector Indicators Apart from calculated indicators, others (Flynn 2002) suggest using a standard indicator set for public sector performance. This set is displayed in Table 2 below (adapted from Flynn 2002). Indicator Explanation eGovernment Example Benchmark Economy The amount of inputs used Expenditure per capita on IT None Internal efficiency The ration of input intermediates Cost per website produced per year Minimization External efficiency The ratio of inputs: outputs (use) Cost per citizen user of government websites per year Minimization Internal effectiveness The fit between actual outputs (use) and organizational objectives or other set targets The extent to which underserved communities are users of e-government services Maximization External effectiveness The fit between actual impacts and organizational objectives or other set targets The extent to which citizens are gaining employment due to use of an eGovernment job search service Maximization Quality The quality of intermediates or, more typically outputs (use) The quality of eGovernent services as perceived by citizen users Maximization Equity The equitability of distribution of outputs and impacts The quality of time/money saved by eGovernment service use between rich and poor Maximization Table 2 Standard Indicators for eGovernment Performance (Flynn 2002) D. Methodologies Having described the methodologies used more commonly when benchmarking eGovernment services, the next step is to illustrate how the necessary data is gathered. There are a number of official methods (eGEP 2006b): * Focus groups * Internal administrative records * Internal self-assessment * Mass user surveys * Official statistics * Pop-up surveys * Third part web assessment * Web metrics and crawlers Each of these methods can be compared in four different and distinct factors (Heeks, 2006). Those are: * Cost: The time and financial cost of the method. * Value: The value of the method in producing data capable of assessing the downstream value of e-government. * Comparability: The ease with which data produced can be compared across nations or agencies. * Data Quality: The level of quality of the methods data. In particular, Heeks suggests using the CARTA (Complete, Accurate, Relevant, Timely, Appropriate) check list when assessing data quality (2006). There is also a set of methodologies that are not used as frequently as the ones mentioned earlier. These are: * Intermediary Surveys. * Intranet Assessment. * Public Domain Statistics. * Public Servant and Politician Surveys. 1. Automation With new eGovernment services being introduced by Governments every day, benchmarking is gradually becoming a more and more important mechanism for identifying best practices and keeping track of developments, but as the number of the offered services increase, data collection becomes more and more difficult. Apart from that, since eGovernment is being expanded to other eGovernment levels, as illustrated earlier in 1, it is only natural that the number of benchmarking studies is increasing fast. Thus, the traditional approach of fata collection has not only become a very challenging but also a very resource intensive task. In order to address this matter, there are projects (eGovMon) which attempt to automate the data collection (Research Council of Norway, 2009). In particular, the eGovMon project is co-funded by the Research Council of Norway and â€Å"is developing methodology and software for quality evaluation of web services, in particular eGovernment services, concerning four areas:†  · Accessibility  · Transparency  · Efficiency  · Impact Additionally eGovMon will provide a policy design tool Case study: SIGMUND FREUD Case study: SIGMUND FREUD Sigmund Freud  (1856-1939),  Austrian physician, neurologist, and founder of psychoanalysis, who created an entirely new approach to the understanding of human personality. Through his skill as a scientist, physician, and writer, Freud combined ideas prevalent at the time with his own observation and study to produce a major theory of psychology. Most importantly, he applied these ideas to medical practice in the treatment of mental illness. His newly created psychotherapy treatments and procedures, many of which in modified form are applied today, were based on his understanding of unconscious thought processes and their relationship to neurotic symptoms (see Neurosis). Regarded with skepticism at the time, Freuds ideas have waxed and waned in acceptance ever since. Nevertheless, he is regarded as one of the greatest creative minds of the 20th century. I. Freuds life Freud  was  born  into  a middle-class Jewish family in Freiberg, Moravia (now PÃ…â„ ¢Ãƒ ­bor, Czech Republic), on May 6, 1856. When he was three years old his family, fleeing from the anti-Semitic riots then raging in Freiberg, moved to the German city of Leipzig. Shortly thereafter, the family settled in Vienna, where Freud remained for most of his life. Although  Freuds  ambition from childhood had been a career in law, he became intrigued by the rapidly developing sciences of the day after reading the work of British scientist Charles Darwin. Freud decided to become a medical student shortly before he entered Vienna University in 1873. Inspired by the scientific investigations of the German poet Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, Freud was driven by an intense desire to study natural science and to solve some of the challenging problems confronting contemporary scientists. In  his  third  year  at  the university Freud began research work on the central nervous system in the physiological laboratory under the direction of German physician Ernst Wilhelm von Brà ¼cke. Neurological research was so engrossing that Freud neglected the prescribed courses and as a result remained in medical school three years longer than was normally required to qualify as a physician. In 1881, after completing a year of compulsory military service, he received his medical degree. Unwilling to give up his experimental work, however, he remained at the university, working in the physiological laboratory. At Brà ¼ckes urging, he reluctantly abandoned theoretical research to gain practical experience. Freud  then  spent  three years at the General Hospital of Vienna, devoting himself successively to psychiatry, dermatology, and nervous diseases. In 1885, following his appointment as a lecturer in neuropathology at Vienna University, he left his post at the hospital. Later that year he worked in Paris with French neurologist Jean Charcot. On  his  return  to  Vienna in 1886 Freud began private practice in neurology. Also that year Freud married Martha Bernays, to whom he had become engaged four years earlier. The first of their children was born the following year. Their family would become complete with the birth of Anna in 1895, who herself would become an important psychoanalyst (see Anna Freud). In  1902  Freud  was  appointed professor of neuropathology at the University of Vienna, a post he held until 1938. In 1923 he developed cancer of the jaw. Although repeated operations and prosthetic appliances in his mouth made his life most uncomfortable, he continued working incessantly until his death. When the Germans occupied Austria in 1938, Freud was persuaded by friends to escape with his family to England. He died in London on September 23, 1939. II. Freuds work Freud  was  by  training a research scientist and a physician. His decision to devote himself to the neglected and poorly understood area of emotional disorders has to do with currents of the time as well as his own interests. Chief among these was the prevailing attitude toward scientific endeavor at the time. Scientists were looking for causes and for connections between previously unrelated phenomena. Although Jewish by birth and cultural tradition, Freud saw all religion as illusory and was non-practicing. Instead, he can be seen as a determinist, viewing the world and human experience as understandable in terms of cause and effect. A. Hypnosis and the influence of Charcot In  1885  Freud  was  awarded a government grant enabling him to spend 19 weeks in Paris as a student of French neurologist Jean Charcot. Charcot, who was the director of the clinic at the mental hospital, the Salpà ªtrià ¨re, was then treating nervous disorders by the use of hypnotic suggestion. Fascinated by the apparent success of these treatments, Freud met and studied with several of the leading figures in the field. Charcots  group  had  been tackling the problem of hysteria, a term derived from the Greek word for womb. Hysteria traditionally was seen as a condition of women and was characterized by unexplained fainting, paralysis, loss of sensation, tics, and tremors. In time, Charcot came to see that men could also be so troubled. Although the mechanism of hysteria was not understood, Charcot and his contemporaries showed that its symptoms could be cured by hypnosis. Freuds studies under Charcot influenced him greatly in channeling his interests to psychopathology (the study and treatment of disorders of the mind). In  his  practice  in  Vienna, Freud met many patients with nervous disorders for which there was no apparent physical cause. Their symptoms included paralyzed limbs, tics, tremors, loss of consciousness, memory impairment, and numbness that could not be explained. These unexplained cases were labeled as neurotic, meaning that they were similar to neurological conditions. In time they became known collectively as neuroses. Freuds  observation  of Charcots use of hypnosis in the treatment of similar disorders led him to conclude that there could be powerful mental processes operating that remain hidden from conscious understanding. He began to employ hypnosis in his own practice, publishing articles on the subject in 1892. Freud came to understand hysterical neurotic symptoms as the product of a conflict between opposing mental forces. Conscious forces representing will were balanced by unconscious opposing forces representing counterwill. He understood hypnosis to act on the side of will to subjugate the counterwill, thus obliterating the symptom. The idea of conflict proposed in the 1892 paper A Case of Successful Treatment by Hypnotism: With Some Remarks on the Origin of Hysterical Symptoms Through Counterwill' was to become a fundamental principle of psychoanalysis. B. The beginnings of psychoanalysts The  next  important  development in Freuds theory of psychology came out of work he conducted with his friend and colleague Josef Breuer, a Viennese physician who was involved in the treatment of a young woman who was distressed while caring for her dying father. The patient had developed a number of hysterical symptoms, which Breuer initially treated by hypnotic suggestion. Initial success gave way to disappointment when on her fathers death her symptoms returned with increased severity. Somewhat at a loss as to how to proceed, Breuer had continued to talk to his patient on a daily basis and in time she began to talk about various reminiscences from the past and about her daydreams. Remarkably, as her narrative revisited memories from the past, which were associated with the onset of a particular symptom, each symptom disappeared when accompanied by an emotional outburst. Breuer made use of this discovery to eliminate her symptoms one at a time. He called the treatment the ca thartic technique (from the Greek katharsis meaning purgation). The treatment was time consuming and required considerable effort to reach dimly recalled and otherwise inaccessible memories. Freud  and  Breuer  published the case and several others in 1895 under the title Studies on Hysteria. Their view was summed up in the statement Hysterics suffer mainly from reminiscences. They proposed that when faced with emotionally traumatic memories, hysterics subjugate them from conscious appreciation to prevent the unbearable emotional pain and suffering that they cause. Rather than being driven out of the mind, however, these memories are driven into an area of the mind that is unconscious and inaccessible. Here the memories may be redirected from the emotional system into the somatic (bodily) system and appear as apparently unexplained physical symptoms. The cases that constitute Studies on Hysteria outline the transition from treatment by hypnotic suggestion to the earliest descriptions of what is now known as psychoanalysis. Working  on  his  own  Freud hypothesized that hysterical symptoms were most likely to arise when repressed traumatic memories related to adverse childhood sexual experiences. This view generated tremendous controversy at the time because the existence of childhood sexuality was not widely accepted. In time Freud was forced to reconsider this aspect of his theory, instead relating the repressed memories to childhood fantasies of sexuality and their relationship to parental figures. 1. Dreams The  next  development  in Freuds theory stemmed from his observations on dreaming. He came to see that many of the characteristics of dreams were shared with the symptomatic memories recalled by his patients in the narrative of free association. In his therapeutic relationship with his patients, Freud had abandoned hypnotic suggestion in favor of encouraging the person to speak freely about whatever came into his or her mind. Unintentionally, the patient would bring order to these free associations, whose structure and content Freud used to try to understand underlying unconscious processes. In  dreams  Freud  noted  the same apparently unstructured experiences of thoughts and images coming into the mind that seemed to be representative of some underlying unconscious process. To explain these phenomena, he suggested the existence of an inner censor that effected a compromise between conflicting mental forces and in the process disguised their meaning from conscious appreciation. He defined resistance as the unconscious defense against awareness of repressed experiences in order to avoid the resulting anxiety. He traced the operation of unconscious processes, using the free associations of the patient to guide him in the interpretation of dreams and slips of speech. Slips of speech or parapraxes, now known as Freudian slips, Freud claimed, were revelations of unconscious wishes. His 1904 publication, The Psychopathology of Everyday Life, discusses these ideas. Freud  came  to  understand the mind as a series of layers, with the most superficial layers in conscious appreciation and the deeper layers containing repressed memories and remaining unavailable to conscious thought. He termed this the topographical model and likened it to an iceberg, a small part of which is visible above the surface while the greater submerged part remains obscured from view. These ideas were published in 1900 in The Interpretation of Dreams. During  the  first  two  decades of the 1900s Freud concentrated on modifying and improving his theory of psychoanalysis. He defined a number of principles and described a model of personality development. 2. The unconscious Perhaps  Freuds  greatest contribution was to describe the unconscious and to postulate that it obeys the principle of psychic determinism, which holds that human thoughts, feelings, and impulses, rather than being random, are linked in a system of causally related phenomena, behind which lies some reason or meaning. Freud concluded that on this basis unconscious processes could be investigated and understood. Some experiences that are not immediately accessible to conscious appreciation can be brought into the conscious mind by the process of remembering. Freud referred to these experiences as the preconscious. Still-deeper thoughts cannot be remembered and are actively repressed in the unconscious. Unconscious  experiences, according to Freud, are not subject to the same logic characteristic of conscious experience. Unconscious ideas, images, thoughts, and feelings can be condensed or dramatized in the form of abstract concepts and imagery. Often the relationship between the original experience and the unconscious symbolic representation can seem obscure. 3. Role of conflict The  central  theme  of  conflict had arisen early in Freuds work. Conflict arises in a persons conscious mind when one set of beliefs impacts adversely on another area of belief, causing emotional suffering felt as disappointment, anger, or frustration. Freud was interested in the unconscious aspect of mental conflict. He described the pleasure principle as another fundamental of psychoanalytic theory. This holds that human beings have a tendency to seek pleasure and avoid pain. The principle is said to dominate in early life, bringing the developing individual into conflict with the external world. These conflicts are retained in the unconscious. Freuds  original  concept held that the conflicts of early life arose as a result of innate human drives or instincts. He conceptualized how development might occur in terms of the drives and their satisfaction according to the pleasure principle. Among the chief drives was the libidinal, or sexual, drive, which serves the human species by directing individuals to reproduce. Awareness of a need to keep rein on the free expression of drives gradually develops, and failure to rein in these drives (and fantasies about their expression) is felt as guilt. Life becomes an equilibrium between drives, conflicts, and reality.  Freud  believed  that  by understanding the crucial events and fantasy wishes of childhood, psychoanalysis could shed understanding on later adult character development with its attendant conflicts and neurotic symptoms. Later, he extended his model to include psychoses (serious mental disorders in which people have a distorted view of reality). Conflicts  repressed  into the unconscious are retained, according to Freud. From time to time they may overcome repression and reemerge into conscious appreciation, precipitating anxiety or panic. To counteract this, the individual unconsciously produces various defense mechanisms, which become part of that persons character. Examples of defense mechanisms include projection, where the individual ascribes to others his or her own unconscious desires (I hate you, for example, becomes You hate me), and reaction formation, where the individual adopts a pattern of behavior directly opposed to a strong unconscious drive.  In 1923 Freud reformulated his ideas in a structural model of the mind that postulated the existence of the id, the ego, and the superego. Freud  gave  the  name  id to unconscious drives. The id knows nothing of morality or reality. It seeks only to gratify the instinctual drives, and it operates solely according to the pleasure principle. Freud held that the biological drives of a young person are often frustrated by delays and restricted by the demands of parents and other older members of the family. As time passes, the demands of the community or society also become important obstacles to id gratification. In adapting to the environment, the child begins to acquire an ego, or set of conscious perceptions, memories, and thoughts that enable the person to deal effectively with reality. Thus, according to Freud, the ego obeys the reality principle. As the individual absorbs the teachings of family and society, he develops a superego, or conscience, that frequently conflicts with the drives of the id. In many cases the ego reduces the conflict by at least partially fulfilling the id impulses through socially ac ceptable behavior. Often, however, the conflict disappears on the conscious level as unfulfilled impulses are repressed into the unconscious mind. Freuds  therapy  consisted of listening to the patient relate a narrative of free associations over many sessions. By listening to the patients associations, Freudian slips, contents of dreams, and thoughts, he linked and interpreted these experiences to the patients conscious world. He came to understand the nature of transference, in which the patient develops feelings for the therapist that are in fact representative of previous feelings toward other important figures in the patients life. These thoughts and feelings Freud interpreted and linked to the patients current emotional state.   C. Major influences Freuds  early  psychological work shows the influence of the sciences of the day on his thinking. Ideas from physics, chemistry, and evolutionary theory occur regularly in his writing. At the time,  Charles Darwins writings, especially the theory of evolution, were challenging contemporary Judeo-Christian belief. Indeed it was Darwin who emphasized instincts for survival and reproduction, formulated in Freuds theory as basic drives.   Freuds  ideas  can  be  seen in the same context as Darwins. Freud, too, challenged philosophical and religious thinking by suggesting that human beings were rather less in control of their own thoughts and actions than previously believed. His contention that unconscious thoughts and actions had to arise from within the self rather than from God conflicted with the contemporary notion of soul. From Freuds time on, the disciplines of philosophy and psychology developed separately. Freud  was  particularly interested in the association school of psychology, which included Johann Friedrich Herbart and Wilhelm Max Wundt, the former of whom may have contributed to free association as a therapeutic technique. Psychodynamic theory-the model of conflicting forces influencing the subconscious-also has its origins in the physical concepts of opposing forces and vector analysis. Freuds theory that unresolved conflicts can be converted into physical symptoms reflects the principle of conservation of energy held by the first law of thermodynamics. Yet  Freuds  ideas  were new and radical, and it is easy to see why Freud came into conflict so readily with the society and establishment of his time. He relied on the support of friends such as Breuer. By 1906, however, a small number of pupils and followers had gathered around Freud, including Austrians William Stekel, Alfred Adler, and Otto Rank; American Abraham Brill; and Eugen Bleuler and Carl Jung from Switzerland. Other notable associates, who joined the circle in 1908, were Hungarian Sà ¡ndor Ferenczi and Briton Ernest Jones. Pakistan: Deep inside the World’s Most Frightening State Pakistan: Deep inside the World’s Most Frightening State BOOK REVIEW â€Å"PAKISTAN DEEP INSIDE THE WORLD’S MOST FRIGHTENING STATE† Author: Mary Anne Weaver Mary Anne Weaver, the writer of â€Å"Pakistan Deep inside the World’s Most Frightening State† has been a long time foreign correspondent for the New Yorker magazine. She is an expert in South Asian and Middle Eastern affairs and political and militant Islam. She has also written on the rise of militant Islam. She has reported from over thirty countries of the world, and currently resides in New York. She has won many writing awards including Citation, the Cornelious Ryan Award for the best non-fiction book on international affairs. Moreover, she has worked for The Sunday Times of London, London Times, Washington Post, and some other groups. She is Bachelor of Arts in Political Science and Journalism from Pennsylvania State University and Master of Arts in Arab Affairs from the American University in Cairo. The other important book that she has written is A Portrait of Egypt: A Journey Through the world of Militant Islam. She has written article on the consequences of S audi and American funding and Egyptian support of Islamic militants fighting the Soviets in Afghanistan. She has also written â€Å"India’s Bandit Queen†. The author’s political and philosophical viewpoint is based on years of experience as a journalist and personal vignettes overseas. She is quite critical on the rise of Militant Islam and the dire need of Pakistan to the United States. General Summary: The book is basically about a country which is surrounded by such challenging and complex circumstances that we can find no parallel of. The country is one and only Pakistan. The author has given a classical account of the situation the country has passed through. A nuclear armed state sandwiched between Afghanistan and India, having militant influence inside has been elaborated by her as the most dangerous place on Earth. The country’s integration is an utmost requirement for the world peace. The book gives an account of the most important factors, i.e. Militancy, Nuclear Arsenal, Neighbors, Role in the War on Terror and the shifting policies in different Dictatorial tenures. Moreover, the role of United States and Saudi Arabia has been discussed and the Baloch Tribal Culture and Kashmir, that has been the main bone of contention between Pakistan and India has been utmost importance in the book. Author’s Thesis or Conclusion: The author during the journey of writing this book met many important figures of the time, such as General Pervez Musharraf, the then President and Chief of Army Staff of Pakistan Army, Benazir Bhutto, G.M.Syed, Nawab Akbar Khan Bugti, and some more. The author has given an account of the circumstances in which General Musharraf took over. There was an overall policy shift after he came into the chair, as his takeover was followed by the 9/11. According to her, there was a huge difference in Zia and Musharraf policies. She elaborates the role of Saudi Arabia and Inter-Services Intelligence of Pakistan in Afghanistan and explains how both contradict their interference. The event of 9/11 led Pakistan into circumstances that it had to become an ally of the United States in the War on Terror. The point of concern for her was that if they counter the Taliban, how they will manage the Jihadis then. Initially, Pakistan benefitted from the United States, as sanctions were removed and aid pac kages were received. She also highlights the role of nationalists like G.M.Syed. She tells that Osama bin Laden had popular support in Pakistan. People were ready to come out on streets for him. He received help from many tribal elders of Balochistan. The tribal elders of Balochistan were against the education and development in their province, as they see reduction in their influence. Further, she talks about the role of Mullahs in the society and most importantly the politics of Pakistan. Arabs are very close to Pakistan. They mostly come there for hunting purposes with the approval of the authorities. Then she talks about Benazir. She tells that at that time Benazir Bhutto seemed a serious threat to Musharraf, as intelligence agencies at that time had the view that she was the most popular leader of the country. She gives an account of Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto’s death and Benazir and family’s condition at that time. She gives a comparison of Musharraf’s liberal an d Zia-ul-Haq’s conservative tenures. She also talks about the role of military in politics. The tussle between India and Pakistan has also been discussed. India blames Pakistan for any incident happening inside its territory and so does Pakistan. India claims that organizations such as Lashkar-e-Taiba, etc. are being operated from Pakistan. The objective of United States was to carry out attacks and limit the members of Al-Qaeda, whereas she gives some indication of Pakistani reluctance also. Regarding Kashmir, the major bone of contention between Pakistan and India, she tells the views of both sides. Pakistan forces for a plebiscite as decided by the United Nations, whereas India has a stance that it is a bilateral issue after the Simla Agreement. There is a major deadlock between both the nations, and none of them can afford to lose Kashmir. For this reason, both sides remain on maximum military alert. She highlights a very important aspect that the organizations which were once formed and trained by the intelligence agencies of Pakistan, like Jaish-e-Muhammad, twice tried to assassinate General Musharraf. This is a point of high concern. Pakistan is hence elaborated as one of the most difficult and tough countries of the world. My Reaction to Author’s Views: I agree with the author’s views in most of the aspects she has given. She is absolutely correct about the difference in the approaches, i.e. liberal and fundamentalist of Musharraf and Zia ul Haq. She correctly tells about the support and sympathies Osama bin Laden had in the country. The Baloch tribal elders themselves do not want economic and educational empowerment in their province, in order to keep in order their influence. The aspect of Arabs which she has discussed is in my point of view correct and having a line in order with Arabs is a basic compulsion on Pakistan, for financial, economic and political reasons. The role of military in politics is a truth, and still politics is not free of their influence. Moreover, the most important aspect in my point of view is that of the organizations that were formed under the influence of our security agencies and now they are our own enemies. This has been clearly witnessed by the whole world. So, her view of Pakistan, one of t he most difficult states in the world is correct, as the complexity of problems that can be witnessed here, are not that common in the world. Summary and General Recommendations: The book is well written, and covers many of the problems and, complexities of the problems, that Pakistan is facing today. The author has herself met many bigwigs and then mentioned the experiences on the basis of those meetings and travels that she had in the country. The book includes index, map, but lacks pictures. As far as referring the book is concerned, yes, I will refer the book to others, for the reason that it contains a whole analysis along with the background of the problems that the country is surrounded by today. This book is a good read for the general reader.